Selected references

Research studies and papers

1. Hudon, A. & Stip, E. (2025). Delusional experiences emerging from AI chatbot interactions or “AI psychosis”. JMIR Mental Health, 12, e85799. PMID: 41273266. Link
2. Kasneci, E., Sessler, K., Küchemann, S., et al. (2023). ChatGPT for good? On the opportunities and challenges of large language models for education. Learning and Individual Differences, 103, 102274. Link
3. Olisaeloka, L., Nunez, J.-J., Vigo, D. V. & Ng, R. (2026). Artificial intelligence (AI) psychosis: mechanisms, clinical risks and safety considerations in generative AI chatbots. BJPsych Open, 12(4), e160. Link
4. Phang, J., et al. (2025). How AI and human behaviors shape psychosocial effects of chatbot use: a longitudinal randomized controlled study. arXiv preprint arXiv:2503.17473. Link
5. Rassell, M. & Bensch, S. (2024). Large language models as social interaction partners for autistic individuals. Proceedings of the 2024 ACM Designing Interactive Systems Conference (DIS '24), 1205–1218. Link
6. Schoenberger, C. R. (2025). When AI is your friend. Stanford Social Innovation Review, 24(1), 69–70. Link
7. Weizenbaum, J. (1966). ELIZA — a computer program for the study of natural language communication between man and machine. Communications of the ACM, 9(1), 36–45.
8. Nature Machine Intelligence. (2025). Emotional risks of AI companions demand attention. Nature Machine Intelligence, 7, 981–982. Link

News, reports and articles

1. Aidsolace. (2026). The loneliness epidemic in 2026: how bad has it actually gotten? Medium. Link
2. Business Research Insights. (2026). AI companion market size, share, growth, and industry analysis, by type, by application, and regional insights and forecast to 2035. Link
3. Chaimie, J. (2026). Chatbots & AI companions: from science fiction to everyday reality. Global Issues. Link
4. Companion-Rater. (2026). Companion-Rater privacy report 2026. Link
5. elento. (2026). Consumer protection in the age of AI personalization and dark patterns. Legal500. Link
6. Elon University News Bureau Staff. (2026). Imagining the Digital Future Center reports on ‘The Rise of AI Companions’. Elon University. Link
7. FasPsych. (2025, 5 September). Parasocial relationships with AI: dangers, mental health risks, and professional solutions. Link
8. Hegarty, S. & Zhong, W. (2026, 1 October). China has cracked down on AI relationships. Is it ahead of the game? BBC News In Depth. Link
9. Sand. (n.d.). Consequence models. Sand Technologies. Link
10. Winthrop, R. (2026). Is it time to measure cognitive stunting? Brookings. Link
11. Mcauly, D. (2026). AI Companions and Human Connection: How Artificial Intelligence is Changing Loneliness. Global RPH. Link

Books

1. Muldoon, J. (2026). Love Machines.
2. Gray, J. (2002). Straw Dogs.